COGNITIVE DISTORTION IN DEPRESSION
A Comparative Experimental Analog Test of the Beck and Reformulated Seligman Models
Abstract
Aaron Beck's "cognitive schema model" and Martin Seligman's "reformulated learned helplessness model" of depression were compared. Post-performance causal ascriptions for success and failure of 48 depressed and 48 non de pressed college students on an experimental number-prediction task, and the relationship between self-esteem and depression in the total sample of 262 subjects, were assessed. Results, indicated that depressed subjects attributed their failure to internal factors and their success to external factors to a significantly greater extent than did nondepressed subjects, as predicted by both models. Learned helplessness predictions regarding stable vs. unstable, global vs. specific and personal vs. universal conditions were not supported. Depressed subjects were found to be significantly more pessimistic than nondepressed subjects in their confidence for succeeding on the task. The correlation between self-esteem and depression was -.58 and was only reduced to - .56 by partialling out internality.
Downloads
References
ABRAMSON, L. Y., & SACKHEIM, H. A. (1977). A paradox in depression: Uncontrollability and self-blame. Psychological Bulletin, 84, 838-851.
ABRAMSON, I. Y., SELIGMAN, M. E. P., & TEASDALE, J. D. ( 1978). Learned helplessness in humans: Critique and reformulation. Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 87, 49 - 74.
AMERICAN PSYCHIATRIC ASSOCIATION. (1980 I Diagnostic and statistical manual of men1a1 disorders (3rd ed. I. Washington: American Psychiatric Association.
AMERICAN PSYCHOLOGICAL ASSOCIATION. (1973 I. Ethical principles in the conduct of research with human participants. Washington: American Psychological Association.
ARKIN, R., COOPER, H., & KOlDITZ, T. ( 1980 ). A statistical review of the literature concerning the self-serving attribution bias in interpersonal influence situations. Journal of Personality, 48, 435 - 448.
BATTLE,J. ( 1978). Relationship between self-esteem and depression. Psychological Reports, 42,745 -746.
BECK, A. T. ( 1970). Depression: Causes and treatment. Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press, (originally published as Depression: Clinical, experimen1al, and theoretical aspects). New York.
BECK, A. T. (1974). Depressive neurosis. In S. Arieti & E. B. Brody ( Eds. ), American handbook of psychiatry (2nd ed.). New York: Basic Books.
BLANEY, P. H. ( 1977 ). Contemporary theories of depression: Critique and comparison. Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 86, 103 -223.
BRADLEY, G. W. ( 1978). Self-serving biases in the attribution process: A re-examination of the fact or fiction question. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 36, 56 - 71.
BREHM,S. S. ( 1976). The Application of social psychology to clinical practice. Washington: Hemisphere.
BUMBERRY, W., Oliver, J. M., & McClure, J. M. ( 1978 I. Validation of the Beck Depression Inventory in a university population using psychiatric estimate as the criterion. Journal of Consulting and , Clinical Psychology, 46, 150 - 155.
COSTEllO, C. G. ( 1978 I. A critical review of Seligman's laboratory experiments on learned helplessness and depression' in humans. Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 87, 21 - 31.
COYNE,J. C. ( 1976 ). Toward an interactional description of depression. Psychiatry, 1976,39,28 - 40.
CRANDAll, R. (1973). The measurement of self-esteem and related constructs. In J. P. Robinson & P. R. Shaver( Eds. I, Measures of social psychological attitudes. Ann Arbor: Institute for Social Research.
DAHLSTROM, W. G., WELSH, G. S., & DAHLSTROM, L. E. ( 1972). An MMPI handbook ( Rev. ed.), Volumne I: Clinical interpretation. Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press.
DAHLSTROM, W. G., WELSH, G. S., & DAHLSTROM, L. E. ( 1975). An MMPI handbook (Rev. ed.), Volume II: Research applications. Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press.
EAGLY, A. H. (1969). Sex differences in the relationship between self-esteem and susceptibility to social influence. Journal of Personality, 37, 581 - 591.
ESWARA,H. S. ( 1972 ). Administration of reward and punishment in relation to ability, effort, and performance. Journal of Social Psychology, 87,139 -140.
FEATHER, M. T. (1967). Valence of outcome and expectation of success in relation to task difficulty and perceived locus of control. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 7, 372 - 386.
FEATHER,N.T., &SIMON,J. G. ( 1971 ). Causal attributions for success and failure in relation to expectations of success based upon selective or manipulative control. Journal of Personality, 39, 527 - 542.
FERNANDO, S. J. M. ( 1975 ). A cross-cultural study of some familial and social factors in depressive illness. British Journal of Psychiatry, 127, 46 - 53.
FITCH,G. ( 1970). Effects of self-esteem, perceived performance and choice on causal attributions. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 16,311 - 316.
HASTORF, A., SCHREUDER, D., & POLEFKA, J. (1970). Person perception. Reading, Massachusetts: Addison-Wesley.
HEILBRUN, A. B., Jr. (1961 ). The psychological significance of the MMPI K Scale in a normal population. Journal of Consulting Psychology, 25, 486 - 491.
HOVLAND, C., & JANIS, I. (Eds.) (1959). Personality and persuasibility. New Haven: Yale University Press.
KELLY, G.A. ( 1964). The language of hypothesis: Man's psychological instrument. Journal of Individual Psychology, 20, 137 - 152.
KLEIN, D. C., FENCIL-MORSE, E., & SELIGMAN, M. E. P. ( 1976). Learned helplessness, depression, and the attribution of failure. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 33, 508 - 516.
KLERMAN,G. L. ( 1974). Depression and adaptation. In R. J. Friedman & M. M. Katz ( Eds. ), The psychology of depression: Contemporary theory and research Washington: Winston-Wiley.
KUPIER, M. A. ( 1978). Depression and causal attributions for success and failure. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 36, 236 - 246.
LANZETTA, J. T., & HANNAH,T. E. ( 1969 ). Reinforcing behavior of "naive" trainers. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 11, 245 - 252.
LOEB, A., Beck, A. T., & DlGGORY, J. C. ( 1971 ). Differential effects of success and failure on depressed and nondepressed patients. Journal of Nervous and Mental Disease, 152, 106 -114.
LOEB, A., BECK, A. T., DIGGORY, J. C., & TUTHill, R. ( 1967). Expectancy, level of aspiration, performance, and self-evaluation in depression. Proceedings of the Annual Convention of the American Psychological Association, 2, 193 - 194.
LOEB, A., FESHBACK, S., BECK, A., &WOLF, A. ( 1964 ). Some effects of reward on the social perception and motivation of psychiatric patients varying in depression. Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 68, 609 - 616.
LUGINBUHL, J. E. R., CROWE H. D., & KAHAN, J. P. ( 1975). Causal attributions for success and failure. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 31, 86 - 93.
MASLOW,A. H. ( 1971 ). The Farther reaches of human nature. New York: Viking Press.
MILLER, W. R., & SELIGMAN, M. E. P. ( 1973). Depression and the perception of reinforcement. Journal of abnormal Psychology, 82, 62 - 73.
MILLER, W. R., & SELIGMAN, M. E. P. ( 1975 ). Depression and learned helplessness in man. Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 84, 228 - 238.
MILLER, W. R., SELIGMAN, M. E. P., & KURLANDER, H. ( 1975). learned helplessness, depression and anxiety. Journal of Nervous and Mental Disease, 161,347 - 357.
MOYAL, B. ( 1977 ). locus of control, self-esteem, stimulus appraisal and depressive systems in children. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 45, 951 - 952.
NISBETT, R. E., & SCHACHTER, S. ( 1966 ). Cognitive manipulation of pain. Journal of Experimental Social Psychology, 2,227 - 236.
REST, S., NIERENBERG, R., WEINER, B., & HECKHAUSEN, H. ( 1973). Further evidence concerning the effects of perceptions of effort and ability on achievement evaluation. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 28, 187 - 191.
RIZLEY, R. ( 1978). 'Depression and distortion in the attribution of causality. Journal of AbnormalPsychology, 87, 32 - 48.
ROSS, L., RODIN, J., & ZIMBARDO, P. G. (1969). Toward an attribution therapy: The reduction of fear through induced cognitive-emotional misattribution. Journal of Personalityand Social Psychology,12,279 - 288.
ROTTER, J. B. (1966). Generalized expectancies for internal versus external control of reinforcement. PsychologicalMonographs,80, ( 1, Whole, NQ609).
ROTTER,J. B., LlVERANT,S., & CROWNE,D. P. ( 1961 ). The growth and extinction ,of expectancies in chance controlled and skill tasks. Journal of Psychology, 52,161 -177.
SCHACHTER, S., & SINGER, J. E. (1962). Cognitive, soc.!jll and physiological determinants of emotional state. Psychological '1eview, 69, 379 - 399.
SCHWAB, J. J., BROWN, J. M., HOLZER, C. E., & SOKOLOF, M. ( 1968). Current concepts of depression: The sociocultural. International Journal of Social Psychiatry, 14, 226 - 234.
SELIGMAN, M.E. P. ( 1975 ). Helplessness. San Francisco: Freeman.
SELIGMAN, M. E. P., KLEIN, D. C., & MILLER, W. R. (1975). Depression. In H. Leitenberg (Ed. I, Handbook of behavior modification and behavior therapy. Englewood Cliffs, New Jersey: Prentice-Hall.
SILVERMAN, C. ( 1968). The epidemiology of depression: A review. American Journal of Psychiatry, 124,883 - 891.
SOBEL,R.S. ( 1974 I. Effects of success, failure and locus of control on J)ostperform_~l1ce attributions of causality. Journal of General Psychiatry, 91, 29 - 34.
STORMS, M. D., & NISBETT, R. E. (1970 I. Insomnia and the attribution process. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 16,319 - 328.
TEJA, J. S., NARANG, R. L., & AGGARWAL, A. K. ( 1971 ). Depression across cultures. British Journal of Psychiatry, 119,253 - 160.
WEINER, B., FRIEZE, I., KUKLA, A., REED, L., REST, S.A., & ROSENBAUM, R. M. ( 1971 ). Perceiving the causes of success and failure. NewYork: General Learning Press.
WEINER, B., & KUKLA, A. (1970). An attributional analysis of achievement motivation. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 15, 1 - 20.
WORTMAN, C. B., COSTANZO, I., & WITT, T. (1973). Effect of anticipated performance on the atribution of causality to self and others. Journal of Personality and SOcialPsychology, 27, 372 - 281.
ZANDER, A., FULLER, R., & ARMSTRONG, W. ( 1972 ). Attributed pride or shame in group and self. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 23, 346 - 352.
ZUCKERMAN, M. ( 1979 ). Attribution of success and failure revisited, or: The motivational bias is alive and well in attribution theory. Journal of Personality, 47,245 – 287.
